Nursing ethics Essay

For the purpose of this assignment, ethics in relation to nursing will be discussed. â€Å"Ethics; A code of principles governing correct behaviour, which in the nursing profession includes behaviour towards patients and their families, visitorsand colleagues† (Oxford Dictionary of Nursing 2004). This assignment will consider autonomy as identified in a practice placement, but will also look briefly at the ethical principle of non-malefience that is relevant in this assignment. It will also closely look at this issue and will describe how the principles of ethics apply to practice. In accordance with the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC 2004). Any names of patients referred to in this assignment have been changed to protect their confidentiality. The NMC states as a registered nurse you must guard against breaches of confidentiality by protecting information from improper disclosure at all times. The placement referred to in this assignment is an Elderly Mentally Infirm (EMI) home, which is located on Merseyside. The United Kingdom Central Midwifery and Health visiting Council (UKCC 2002, clause 6)). Which is now known as The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) Also state that â€Å"Health Care Professionals should recognize the respect the uniqueness and dignity of each patient and client, and respond to their need for care irrespective of their ethnic origin, religious beliefs, personal attributes, the nature if their health problems or any other factor†. Autonomy (â€Å"Greek: Auto-Nomos – nomos meaning â€Å"law†: one who gives oneself his own law) means freedom from external authority†: Wikipedia, encyclopedia (2004). On this placement, there were several examples of how autonomy influenced care delivery; this assignment will address two of these examples. The first incident involved an eighty six year old lady called Betty, who suffered with severe dementia, the Practice nurse from her surgery was coming into the home to administer the flu injection to her and several other clients. It had been recorded in Betty’s case notes that she had had a fear of  needles in the past and had refused several injections before her mental health had deteriorated, Does an autonomous decision have to be rational? â€Å"In the ideal of autonomy day – to -day decisions should be rational, i.e. consistent with the person’s life plans† Hope, Savulescu and Hendrick, (2003 p 34). Betty had no living relatives to contact to discuss her treatment. Patients suffering with dementia cannot always exercise autonomy. A client may be mentally incapacitated for various reasons. These may be temporary reasons, such as the effect of sedatory medicines, or longer-term reasons such as mental illness. It is important to remember that capacity may fluctuate, sometimes over short periods, and should therefore be regularly reassessed by the clinical team treating the client. The principles of consent continue to apply to any medication for conditions not related to the mental disorder for which they are being treated. The assessment of their capacity to consent to or refuse such medication therefore remains important. The NMC (2004) recognises that this is a complex issue that has provoked widespread concern. It involves the fundamental principles of patient and client autonomy and consent to treatment, which are set out in common law and statute and underpinned by the Human Rights Act 1998. The principle of respect for autonomy entails taking into account and giving consideration to the patient’s views on his or her treatment. Autonomy is not an all or nothing concept, an initial step maintaining Betty’s autonomy may be to clarify all the facts in the case, for example does Betty have any understanding of the risks of not having this treatment? Her mental illness means that she is unlikely to be competent to consent or refuse the injection, but an attempt should be made to explain to her, in terms that she could understand, what the treatment would involve and what the outcome would be without treatment. Has her autonomy been enhanced as much as is possible? If the conclusion is that she is unable to understand the consequences of non-treatment, or that her fear of needles is stopping her evaluating the risks, then she will not be competent to make a decision. However, this does not mean that her fears and concerns should not be  acknowledged. Mill (1982) states â€Å"†¦..the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others to do so would be wise, or even right† Mill (1982 p 68). The NMC (2004) Code of Professional Conduct 3.3 states that, â€Å"When obtaining valid consent, you must be sure that it is: given by a legally competent person, given voluntarily, and informed†. Crow (1983) suggests that it is the nurse’s responsibility to deliver care within the framework of agreed moral principles, for instance those reflected in the Code itself. The principle of non-malefience should also be considered in Betty’s treatment, it would seem to be in her best interests to be treated. If the injection is the proposed treatment, the balance of harms and benefits may be such that treatment would causes distress for a short time not such that her life is intolerable. If the decision is to give the injection, then once again respect for Betty’s wishes and concerns should influence the approach to treatment so that her fears are mitigated as much as possible. All medication given covertly must, be recorded in Betty’s case notes for future reference this shows good nursing practice. According to Wikipedia, Encyclopedia. (2006). Primum non nocere is a Latin phrase that means â€Å"First, do no harm.† The phrase is sometimes recorded as primum nil nocereIt is one of the principal precepts all medical and nursing students are being taught in medical school. It reminds a healthcare professional that he or she must consider the possible harm that any intervention might do. It is most often mentioned when debating use of an intervention with an obvious chance of harm but a less certain chance of benefit. Another example of how autonomy influenced care delivery on this placement was, the entire patient’s case notes where locked away at the nurses station and the trained nurse had the key, if anybody needed the notes the trained nurse had to either get them or issue the key, which had to be returned straight away. This involved the principle of autonomy but also the principle of non-malefience. In any situation where confidentiality is breached, the nurse or doctor must be prepared to justify his or her decision before the General Medical Council. Respect for patient autonomy (deontological theory)The principle of respect for patient autonomy acknowledges the right of a patient to have control over his or her own life, and this would include the right to decide who should have access to his or her personal information. Where the basis for the duty of confidentiality is the principle of respect for autonomy any breach of confidentiality means that the patient’s autonomy has not been respected, whether or not the patient is aware of the breach. Now due to The Freedom of information act 2000, which came into force in January 2005, patients and carers now have the right to ask to see confidential records. There are exceptions to the confidentially clause and the principles addressed in this assignment. The National Health Service (NHS) Confidentiality, Code of Practice. This provides generic guidance where there is a need to disclose information that identifies an individual and that information is held under a legal obligation of confidentiality. â€Å"The issues to be considered and the appropriate steps to take can be ascertained by working through the model and referenced text refers to appendix one, two, three. A range of information disclosure scenarios can be found in NHS Code of Conduct Confidentially (2003). These reference and illustrate the model that can be used to aid decision-making. â€Å"They highlight issues relating to particular decisions, e.g. disclosure to NHS managers or to the police. It is hoped that they cover many of the circumstances that staff currently have to deal with† (NHS 2003). In 1997, the Department of Health published the Caldicott Report (‘On the Review of Patient-Identifiable Information’). It considered the flow of  identifiable patient information and recommended that confidentiality should be safeguarded by anonymising health data, where possible. â€Å"Each NHS organisation must have a ‘guardian’ (normally a senior health professional) to oversee all procedures affecting access to person-identifiable information† DOH Caldicott report (1997). The NMC code of professional conduct: A standard for conduct performance and ethics (2004) â€Å"requires each registrant to act at all times in such a manner as to justify public trust and confidence. Registrants are personally accountable for their practice and, in the exercise of professional accountability, must work in an open and co-operative manner with patients/clients and their families, foster their independence, and recognise and respect their involvement in the planning and delivery of care.† According to Beauchamp and Childress (2001) there are four principles, which are the most widely used framework and offers a broad consideration of medical ethics issues generally, not just for use in a clinical setting. Ethics are also applied to every day living, and that everybody has their own opinion of what is ‘right or wrong’, to quote Hinchliff, Norman & Schober (2003) â€Å"getting in touch with one’s personal value base is a crucial first step in the study of nursing ethics†. After considering these four Principles, which are general guides that, leave considerable room for judgement in specific cases. â€Å"Respect for autonomy: respecting the decision-making capacities of autonomous persons; enabling individuals to make reasoned informed choices. Beneficence: this considers the balancing of benefits of treatment against the risks and costs; the healthcare professional should act in a way that benefits the patient. Non-maleficence: avoiding the causation of harm, the healthcare professional should not harm the patient. All treatment involves some harm, even if minimal, but the harm should not be disproportionate to the benefits of treatment. Justice: distributing benefits, risks and costs fairly; the notion that patients in similar positions should be treated in a similar manner† (Beauchamp and Childress 2001). This assignment claims that ethics are an important part influence in the  delivery of care, but are also a very complex subject, and often leads the Healthcare Professional to examine their own ethical values, it is recommended that a wide range of reading is required to clarify the subject further. After examining the subject further, it is clear that that in the work place a majority of the delivery of care is, planned with the patients before it is put into practice, which try ‘s to ensure that ethical principles are followed. Professional practice and ethics are changing every day, and it is a complex subject it is also debatable how different people interpret ethics. Ethics is also about questioning our own and others practice â€Å"challenging our own and others practice requires courage and vigilance† Kenworthy, Snowy, & Gilling (2006). Reflection on ones own and other people’s ethical values is a very useful part of continuing learning throughout both career and life, and as a health care professional we must have a good knowledge of nursing ethics and use this in practice rather than personal opinion. In addition, with such issues as euthanasia and cloning, in the news almost every day the ethical pressures on the nursing and medical profession grows stronger. Nurses are seeking to develop further their knowledge of ethics and are increasing their ability to recognise ethical issues in practice. REFERANCE Beauchamp, T. and Childress, J. (2001). Principles of biomedical ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crow, J (1983).Professional responsibility. Nursing Timesi>. 79, 19-21. Department of Health. (1998). Caldicott report. London: Department of Health. Department of Health. (2001f). The Essence of Care – PatientFocused Benchmarking for Health Care Practitioners. RetrievedSeptember 27, 2006 London: www.doh.gov.uk/essanceofcare.htmDepartment of Health. (2003). NHS code of practice: confidentiallyi> (25 28). London: Department of Health. Department of Health. (2001). Seeking consent: working witholder people London: Department of Health. Hinchliff, S. Norman, S. &Schober, J. (2003). Nursing practice and healthcare. London: Arnold. Hope, T. Savulescu, J. hendrick, J. (2003). Medical ethics and the law,the core curriculum. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Kenworthy, N. Snowley, G. & Gilling, C. (Eds.). (2006). Common foundation studies in nursing. (3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Bailliere Tindall. Martin, E A (Ed.). (2004). Oxford dictionary of nursing. Oxford:Oxford university press. Mills, J (1982). On liberty. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Nursing ethics. (n.d.). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved October 26, 2006, from Reference.com website: http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Nursing_ethicsNursing and Midwifery Council (2002) Code of Professional Conduct. London: NMC. Nursing and Midwifery council. (2004). Standard for conduct, performanceand ethics. London: NMC. Payne, R (1992). Accountability in principle and practice. BritishJournal of Nursing. 1, p301-305. Roper, N., Logan, W.L. & Tierney, A.J. (2000). The Roper-Logan-Tierney model of nursing: based on activities of living. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. United Kingdom Central Council. (1998). Guidelines for mentalhealth and learning disabilities nursing (12). London: UKCC Publications.

Becoming a Family

The family is still considered by sociologists as the nuclear component of any society regardless of cultural norms, traditions and beliefs. In the United States, the average American family has undergone dramatic changes in terms of its function and structures. Of these changes, the most apparent is the fact that most average American families are now what many considered as blended families.Blended families are considered to be extremely complex in terms of its structure and as such, the interpersonal relationship between the members of these blended families becomes complex as well. It is for this reason that numerous research studies have been conducted with regards to the adaptation and interpersonal relationships that occur between family members. This paper would provide a summary of the findings of one particular research study conducted with regards to the relationship among members of blended families.The paper would also provide a critical evaluation on the findings that h ave been presented by the researchers in the article provided by comparing this with four other journal articles on the topic. Summary of Article The journal article selected for the critical evaluation to be conducted in this paper is a study conducted by Braithwaite, Olson, Golish, Soukup and Turman entitled â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmental Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse.In this article, the researchers found the need to investigate and develop a deeper understanding on the different processes that occur within blended families in order to become a solid, nuclear family sociologists have long recognized as the foundation of any society. The need was brought about by statistics showing an increase in the number of blended families now present within modern-day American societies (Braithwaite, Olson, Golish, Soukuip & Turman 2000). The study conducted by the researchers involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies centering on a process-focus approach.A total of 980 members of blended families were interviewed by the researchers, with the questionnaire based on the findings of previous research studies conducted on the subject matter. Based on the data gathered by the researchers, they had determined that the major issues blended families had to cope with in order to become a strong nuclear family are the management of boundaries between members of the family, solidarity and adaptation to the concept of being a blended family.The researchers determined that although the negotiation processes that occurred among members of blended families differs there remains some common factors which, in turn, help determine whether or not the blended family would be able to adapt or otherwise (Braithwaite et al 2000). According to the analysis of the data gathered by the researchers with regards to the methods of negotiation that occurs within blended families, they determined that those that have experienced what the y considered to be constructive trajectories are more able to adapt to the situation a lot better, regardless of the issues at hand.In the case of overcoming the issue with regards to boundary management, the researchers determined that successful blended families are those that through the proper use of interpersonal communication skills, the members of the blended family are more able to have a smooth transition for the new members of the family to become incorporated in the blended family. On the other hand, the lack of such negotiating skills can result for the addressing of boundary management to become stagnant within the first four years of being a blended family or even cause friction and turmoil to arise.The same holds true with regards to addressing the issues of solidarity and adaptation among blended families. Based on this, the researchers concluded that manner on how interpersonal relationship and communication occurs between members of the blended family is a key fact or in determining the success – or lack thereof – in the solidifying of the blended family (Braithwaite et al 2000). Critical EvaluationIn order to provide an ample critical evaluation with regards to the article summarized, the concept of â€Å"blended families† must first be determined. According to Shalay and Brownlee (2007), blended families are those families that occur as a result of a remarriage made on the part of the parents. In many cases, sociologists define blended families as those separated families that have been united with each other by marriage. In the United States, blended families have now become a common part of society.In a country, where almost half of the marriages end in divorce, it has been estimated that 79% of divorced men and 75% divorced women would remarry, with 60% of this population having children from the previously dissolved marriage (Darden & Zimmerman 1992). While the commonly used terminology in society to refer to the par ent-child relationship and sibling relationship resulting from the remarriage process as step families, sociologists prefer to use the term blended families to recognize the merging of these two families into one solid unit (Shalay & Brownlee 2007).The focus of the article â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmental Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse is centered on the understanding of the different pathways that blended families undergo as they slowly merge and become one solid family unit. During this process, the researchers have determined that the main issues faced by blended families are boundary management, solidarity and adaptation.Through the initial literature review conducted by the researchers for the study, they have determined that stage-based models initially used by sociologists have been extremely limited primarily due to its over-simplification of the stages presented and the assumption that blended families must attain a specific objective in ord er to reach the next level. The complexity of the structure of blended families have led the researchers to adopt a process approach to understand the different patterns and processes that blended families undergo in their quest in becoming a solid family unit (Braithwaite et al 2000).These conclusions were also found by Wood in her book entitled Relational Communication: Continuity and Change in Personal Relationships. In her chapter which looks into the development of intimacy in interpersonal relationships, Wood (2000) stipulated that earlier models depicting stages within interpersonal relationships, such as that experienced in blended families, have been initially misinterpreted as a stage or a state where in fact, the development of intimacy is an ongoing process.By viewing the development of intimacy in interpersonal relationships, one can assume that the moment the stage is completed, those involved in the interpersonal relationship would be able to progress to the next stag e and would no longer experience the conflicts and issues that have already been addressed in the previous stage. In reality, interpersonal relationships is an ongoing process depicted by the solving and resolving conflicts and issues throughout the length of the relationship, making the process approach more applicable in the understanding of blended families.The premise presented by Wood in her book can also be found in the article of Ginther and Pollak entitled Family Structure and Children’s Educational Outcomes: Blended Families, Stylized Facts, and Descriptive Regressions where they looked into the difference between the performance of children coming from â€Å"intact† families and those coming from blended families. Here, Ginther and Pollack (2004) stated that in the understanding of how being a part of a blended family would influence the educational performance of a child.Based on the initial research they conducted, they determined that many of the literatur e that they reviewed approach the study of blended families through what they termed as stylized facts, which are simple correlations between parents and children in terms of the relationships that they foster within a blended family. Ginther and Pollack discovered that those that have utilized the stylized fact approach would often be a result of the inconsistent parenting styles experienced by the children in the presence of both the biological parent and the stepparent.While this may partly be responsible for any form of conflict arising within blended families and thus, making the process of becoming a family unit more difficult, the study that they have conducted have found that this is brought about by the stress continuously experienced within the relationship between parents and children in blended families. As such, they stipulated in their study that a change in the approach to focus more on the relationship between parents and children in blended families are more importa nt in understanding the process undertaken by blended families into becoming solid family units.In the article â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmental Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse, the use of negotiation has been considered extremely vital in the addressing of issues commonly faced by blended families in their quest to become a solid family unit. This premise has been supported in other studies that have been conducted by other researchers. In a study conducted by Darden and Zimmerman (1992), they looked into the various issues faced by blended families in the United States over the last decade from a theoretical, clinical and research perspective.It was their understanding that much of the previous approaches and methods utilized in the understanding of blended families in the United States have been inadequate due to the fact that they were based on previous studies conducted on â€Å"intact† families as well as single-parent families. The resear chers have determined that the primary conflict rising within blended families are rooted from the roles that each member plays. The children still regard their biological, or natural, parents to be the only ones that have authority over their growth and development as individuals.As a result, the stepparents would often find themselves feeling excluded from their role as being a parent to these children since negotiations are commonly made between biological parents instead between the biological parent and the stepparent. The importance of such negotiation between biological parents was comprehensively explained in a study conducted by Kathleen Rodgers and Hilary Rose. In their study, which focused on the understanding factors that contribute further in the psychological and behavioral changes observed among adolescents in blended families.This was done through the use of the risk and resiliency framework. Because of the loss of a recognized parent from the household, the adolesce nt in a blended family may perceive the infrequent presence of the recognized parent to be a loss of parental support. The resiliency framework is used to measure the level of adaptation that the adolescent experiences as a result of a challenging situation, in this case, the shift from an â€Å"intact† family to a blended family.Based on their findings, they had determined that one method for the proper and successful adaptation of the children in blended families is through the constant negotiation between biological parents as well as between the biological parent and stepparent would be able to resolve any feelings of resistance on the part of the children, which would, in turn, lead to the progress of the blended family in terms of addressing the three issues presented by Braithwaite and her colleagues which are boundary management, solidarity and adaptation (Rodgers & Rose 2002).The negotiation process presented in the article â€Å"Becoming a Family†: Developmen tal Processes Represented in Blended Family Discourse has been used as a tool used by many family therapists during counseling sessions, particularly with blended families who are having difficulties in becoming a solid family unit. In the article, much of the conflict arise as a result of the awareness of the fact that the initial expectations that had once been held by members of the blended family are shattered as they realize the reality of the situation that they find themselves in.One method utilized in family counseling sessions is the use of narrative therapy. In their article Narrative Family Therapy with Blended Families, Shalay and Brownlee (2007), determined through the study that they have conducted that through the use of a process approach, the narrative therapy proved to be beneficial in helping blended families become solid family units since through this method, they are able to discuss not just their expectations.The narrative therapy also allows members of the fa mily to relate any form of disappointments that they have experienced as a result of not being able to meet their initial expectations as well as social myths that they have heard with regards to blended families and influences of previous histories in their respective lives. Through this, members of the blended family are then able to reach a comprise resulting from negotiation processes carefully assisted by the therapist in order to ensure that the blended family becomes a solid family unit.Conclusion With more and more families now becoming blended as a result of different social factors, particularly divorce and remarriage, harmony and unity within the family has now become extremely more complicated to achieve. Although this phenomenon is common, this nevertheless brings about new conflicts that have not been observed among traditional nuclear families. This includes the rise of the issues regarding boundary management, adaptation and solidarity.It is for this reason that the use of negotiation skills has become more important among blended families in order to eradicate any fears and inhibitions felt by the members of the blended family in order to achieve harmony and unity, thus exhibiting the same traits found among traditional families. References Baithwaite, D. O. , Olson, L. N. , Golish, T. D. , Soukup, C. & Turman, P. (2002). â€Å"Becoming a family†: developmental processes represented in blended family discourse.In S. A. Friedley (Ed. ), Interpersonal Communication Theory: A Reader (pp. 181-207). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Darden, E. C. & Zimmerman, T. S. (1992). Blended families: a decade review, from 1979 to 1990. Family Therapy, 19(1), 25-30. Ginther, D. K. & Pollak, R. A. (2004). Family structure and children’s educational outcomes: blended families, stylized facts, and descriptive regressions. Demography, 41(4), 671- 96.Rodgers, K. B. & Rose, H. A. (2002). Risk and resiliency factors among adolescents who exper ience marital transitions. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 1024-37. Shalay, N. & Brownlee, K. (2007). Narrative family therapy with blended families. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 18(2), 17-30. Wood, J. T. (2000). Relational Communication: Continuity and Change in Personal Relationships (2nd ed. ). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

McDonalds marketing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

McDonalds marketing - Case Study Example McDonalds's worldwide operations are characterized by ever increasing uncertainty and competition. Against this backdrop it's essential to consider the extent to which the product and service quality has an impact on customers at its restaurants. As much as fast food restaurants are highly influenced by competitor behavior as an exogenous variable, the staff also affects the consumers' perception and behavior as an endogenous variable. This paradigm of behavior is essentially associated with the ever rising fast food restaurant competition in townships across the globe and above all customer satisfaction strategies and initiatives have shaped McDonald's global operations.Thus the consumer buying behavior is influenced by various in a way that indisputably acts like the harbinger of all organizational outcomes (Fornell, & Johnson, 1996). The theoretical and conceptual framework of this research effort would be basically determined by the relevance of the existing theoretical postulate s and the conceptual frameworks of analysis and reference. Thus there will be an in-depth examination of the available literature on the subject to identify the correlations between among a set of more significant endogenous and exogenous variables involved in customer satisfaction and loyalty at McDonald's.The behavioral dimension refers to repeat purchases and attitudinal perspective refers to customers' intention to repurchase and recommend the product to others. These are good indicators of a loyal customer. Thus corporate image of McDonald's is determined by its ability to penetrate and hold niche market segments for longer duration of time. As a result the corporate image of the company receives a boost. McDonald's has been expereining a rise in its corporate image among consumers over the past few years (Gustafsson, 2005). Corporate image depends on the company's advertising, public relationship, word-of-mouth communication and actual experience related strategies and initiat ives. McDonald's has been consumer focused and is well known for its concern for customer satisfaction and service quality. Thus there is a considerable amount of positive impact on its marketing campaigns. Repeat purchases are made by customers under extreme circumstances in the fast food industry because potential customers are attracted by price discounts and unique benefits. As much as the price of the product matters product benefits also matters. Enhanced product specifications and performance act as a compulsion on potential repeat purchasers who weigh both price and quality on one hand and product innovation on the other (DiJulius, 2003). McDonald's has succeeded here. 1.1. Hypothesis or thesis statement The thesis statement of this paper rests on the testing of the primacy and the immediacy of a core group of theoretical and conceptual perspectives appertaining to the impact of product and service quality dimensions on the customer satisfaction at McDonald's against the backdrop of the former's cultural diversity and the latter's constant exposure to competition related issues along with the defined or undefined organizational outcomes (Hayes, 2008). Both a priori and a posteriori elements of customer satisfaction are inherently included in the analysis to capture the convergence/divergence framework of reference within McDonald's employee relations and work culture.

AFA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

AFA - Essay Example Hegel asserted that African did not have the capacity or the spirit to steer development. However, the transformation that Africa has gone through is proof of the true of African spirit that chose to rule itself after European. The statements of Hegel were appreciated a century later by Hugh Trevor-Roper. Trevor-Roper’s compilation, The Rise of Christian Europe, likened the history of Africa to darkness, and the present Africa has undeniable traces of Europe history. The purpose of this essay is to debunk the mythical and stereotyped assertions made by Hegel and Trevor-Roper. The present Africa has made remarkable history by holding on to social, political and economic practices that trace back to the pre-colonial era. The transformation social-cultural institutions have gone through cannot escape notice. Hegel and Trevor-Roper ignore the rich traditional culture that existed before the scramble for Africa. The family unit recognized unequal role between men and women in the family unit. Men were considered as protectors and breadwinners in the family while women tended to children and farms. The superior role of men was appreciated in Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, and Nigeria South Africa where the societies were patriarch in nature (Archive.unu.edu).The family units did not undergo many transformations despite the coming of European and Asians from as early as 1800s. The West Africa nations retained the male supremacy and any attitude or practice that favored the role of the men in the society. However, post-colonial periods features family units where both and women have equal roles. The adoption of European religion has played a crucial role in setting modern trends within the African family units. There are communities that embrace male supremacy but are gradually orienting to the new wo rld order on equality. Indigenous African education system featured practices and customs that were taught by the older

Negotiating with East Asians Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Negotiating with East Asians - Article Example The present research has identified that IBN is basically a kind of communication that often occurs between one or more parties to assist them to deal with those issues that are agreeable among themselves as well as those that bring forth some kind of drift. Some of the countries chosen for the research carried out so that the Asian business community can be understood better are, China, Japan, and Korea. These are amongst those countries that trade so often with the United States of America and also have closely linked cultural backgrounds. In as far as the negotiation procedures between the two are concerned; several disparities were found to exist in East Asia that is not there in America. These include; The East Asians attend meetings in large numbers. This is the same for all from the three studied countries. Although their reasons vary, for instance, the Japanese attend in large numbers because they believe that no single individual has the capacity to understand the whole comp any thus represent it in full confidence in any meeting to the Chinese putting hierarchical meaning to the number, having much regard for ranks and the power that comes with it. The Americans avoid such numbers due to several reasons such as to cut down on the expense associated with large numbers of avoiding group disagreements because they are eager to close a negotiation as fast as possible. In East Asia, the majority of those in meetings happen to be men. They give little regard to their female counterparts and whatever input they might have in as far as the meetings are concerned as stated by Hofstede, G. Due the there been the complete opposite of such perceptions in America, it is often quite common for their Asian partners to assume that the American women present in the boardroom are assistants or secretaries thus find it repulsive if these women participated in any manner whatsoever. The East Asians are known to arrive in any meeting fully conversant with their partnerâ₠¬â„¢s background, from professional such as work experience to the level of study as well personal information such as what they like to eat and do at their free time. The Americans do not have this tradition to be over-indulged in their partners lives thus are always caught unaware at most times.

Critically assess the usefulness of Gabriel Almond's political Essay

Critically assess the usefulness of Gabriel Almond's political cultural approach in his 1956 article Comparative Political Syste - Essay Example Various regimes in Europe have experienced such political unrest due to conflicts among the nations’ different leaders, giving rise to political instability and eventual economic breakdown, which include France’s Third and Fourth Republic, Germany’s Weimar Republic, and Italy’s Post-World War II government. The rise and fall of such regimes in these countries can be explained through two lines of thought: one is Gabriel Almond’s comparative political systems which differentiate the various kinds of governance in countries according to how the country is run by the government; and another is Giovanni Sartori’s theory of polarised plural systems, which points out the importance of political parties needing to work together and not strongly-opposing one another. By combining these two concepts, it will better explain why political instability plays a major role in governance, both in the past such as in France’s Third and Fourth Republic and Germany’s Weimar Republic, as well as the persistence of this issue in Italian governance for a much longer time. Comparative Political Systems by Gabriel Almond Gabriel Almond published a classification system which compares various kinds of political systems, how each one governs the nation, as well as stating where such kinds of governance are mostly found. ... ssible that the kind of governance in each country may depend on their internal resources, customs and ideologies, and other factors that may or may not align with the definitions of the extant classification systems (Almond, 1956). Thus Almond proposes other kinds of political systems which are much more defined by the culture where each one is based on: Anglo-American political systems, usually composed of a uniform and secular group of people; Pre-industrial political systems, wherein there is a mixture of political systems due to the proliferation of traditional ideas and culture amidst modernist views; Totalitarian political systems in which leadership is centralised and there is actually no need for an overall consensus due to the dominance of only one party or one leader; and the Continental European political systems, wherein the lack of a unified political culture is due to the persistence of various cultures, both new and old and their wide gaps in terms of growth, developm ent and acceptance among the leaders, various parties, and among the citizens. According to Almond, France, Germany and Italy belong to the Continental European political systems due to high variations between the ruling parties and of differing views within the leadership system (Almond, 1956, p. 406). In explaining the political instability in France during the Third and Fourth Republic, of Germany during the Weimar Republic and of Italy after World War II, their respective politics are included in the Continental European political systems because of the various subcultures that exist within each country that causes disunity within the leadership itself. In the case of France, in both the Third and Fourth Republic issues such as the distrust between the leftists and the rightists were

Inclusive Science Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Inclusive Science Education - Essay Example 5). People with physical impairments have long encountered barriers to pursuing careers in science. These barriers come in various forms, including historical, institutional, physical, attitudinal, and curricular hindrances. The CLASS Project uses professional development workshops to prepare educators for inclusive classrooms, thereby helping them do away with obstacles for their students. (Bargerhuff, 2004, p-319) The eventual objective of the project is to augment the depiction of individuals with disabilities pursuing careers in or related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Persons having impairments have worked hard for decades to attain reasonable outcomes in all areas of their lives, employment, independent living, and education. Until the passage of the Education of All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) in 1975, many students with disabilities were regularly excluded from public school.

What kind of society should the United States strive to become Essay

What kind of society should the United States strive to become - Essay Example Though it presents us with a unique opportunity, it has the potential to work against us if we fail to create a social attitude to accept these differences. There is a fine line we must walk to maintain our cultural differences without labeling a group as being different. Being set too far apart from the larger society runs the risk of many minorities becoming increasingly separated by prejudice and discrimination. The challenge is to incorporate and preserve multi-value systems without the attitude that can develop in a dominant-minority relationship. The multicultural approach views our value system as a diverse set of qualities that defines what it means to be an American. The term mulit-cultural implies that the definition is broad and sweeping, encompassing numerous attitudes and beliefs. The older national approach assumed there were a set of traditional American values at the core of our society. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive. Minority groups adopt the prevailing core values of the society in an effort to become more American. Immigrants may develop values based on our constitution or Ten Commandments without rejecting their own unique perspective and cultural heritage. What is ethnocentrism Can you identify your own ethnocentric feelings Please provide a specific example. Ethnocentrism is the belief that our own values and standards are the true and correct ones and cultural differences are viewed as unusual or inappropriate. Ethnocentrism deems our own judgments and values as morally superior than others, which we view as primitive or barbaric. It is a trait that gives us the sense that 'I am right, they are wrong'. When I see an ethnic grocery store or market in a major American city, I am instantly repelled by the bizarre types of foods and what I perceive as unhealthy conditions. I may not even know what the foods are, but my knowledge that they are different is enough for me to develop the perception that they are inferior to my familiar cheeseburger and french fries. My ethnocentrism is making the judgment without regard to well-reasoned thought. Week 2 Define pluralism and explain the ways in which it differs from assimilation. Why has interest in pluralism increased How have contemporary theorists added to the concept of pluralism Pluralism is the process of maintaining distinct social groups that hold and preserve unique cultural differences and values. Assimilation is the process of becoming a member of another group through social contact. It assumes that when groups interact they will adopt mutual values and goals. Over time, the two groups will merge into one without noticeable differences. Pluralism recognizes that values and ethnic traditions are preserved within a group because they offer value to its members in the way of self-image and group power. Interest in pluralism has increased because real assimilation does not seem to be a practical reality. Ethnic identification has become more pronounced as America becomes more diverse and groups cling to and celebrate their ethnic traditions. It is becoming more accepted that the assimilation predicted by Park and others will not come to pass in the foreseeable

Lifelong Learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Lifelong Learning - Essay Example H G Wells was correct when he said that 'the whole of human history is a battle between education and catastrophe' (cited in Fischer, 2000, p. 265). Those of us immersed in a lifelong learning culture can all sense that the new millennium brings with it the opportunity for a new beginning. But we can all see, as well, the scale of the task ahead just to make it happen, perhaps starting in our own communities and branching out from there with new understandings, new persuasions, new insights, new wisdom. Thanks to inter-governmental organizations-UNESCO, OECD, APEC, the Council of Europe, The European Commission and others - and some of the more enlightened liberal democracies, the lifelong learning movement is now rampaging around the whole world, from Europe to South Africa and from North America to Japan, like a benign educational plague. It is the future-and it is not before time. In Lifelong Learning, written 12 years ago, Longworth and Davies suggested eight reasons why lifelong learning is particularly appropriate for this age. But nine years is a long time in a lifelong learning world. While some are still as relevant as on the day they were written, it is time to update the rest to take into account the changes in the meanwhile: Fundamental global demographics-in the rich developed world, ageing, more mobile, more multicultural and multi-ethnic societies which could release high inter-racial and inter-generational social tensions and a reduced investment in welfare programmes through a fall in working, and an increase in retired, populations. By contrast, in the poorer parts of the world a massive population growth exacerbating already chronic shortages of resource and education and condemning vast numbers of people to live at subsistence level and below... The pervasive influence of television and the media on the development of peoples' thoughts, ideas and perceptions. Television has an enormously powerful effect on people. Where it is in the hands of those who would use it as an instrument of propaganda, whether raw or subtle, as happens in both poor and rich countries, it can be used to foster hatred and intolerance. Where it is used purely as an instrument of entertainment, it can, through trivialization and ignorance of real issues, have an equally insidious effect on the ability of people to make informed choices. As an occasional, independent, instrument of education it could be used to transform nations into dynamic, well-educated and flexible lifelong learning societies (Marsick, 1998, p. 119). Environmental imperatives - the depletion of the world's resources and the need for renewable energy, the destruction of ecosystems and the demand for sustainable development. There is a crucial need to educate continually all the world's people in environmental matters as a basis for the survival of species on earth and to be inventive and innovative about how environmental information is kept constantly in the forefront of popular consciousness. In other words, the need for a lifelong learning approach to a lifelong survival issue (Swedburg & Ostiguy 1998, p. 27). These are issues affecting every society and they propagate a view of lifelong learning as a global phenomenon, entirely consonant with the reality of governmental perceptions.

Affect of Language Learning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Affect of Language Learning - Assignment Example Researchers have discovered that reading skills, intelligence levels, and verbal fluency are always improved through learning a second language. The researchers conducted their research on this issue by using 853 individuals. They used the data of these individuals when they were at the age of 11 and later when they had attained an age of 70. Previously, a certain research had proved that the bilinguals had delays of several years during the onset of dementia (Wolfgang, 2001). Most of the people who choose to learn a second language are always in their later stages of life. When a person attains bilingualism in the later stages of life, there are many benefits to an aging brain. The cognitive abilities are always altered when individuals attain bilingualism at a later stage of their life. Apart from having an improved intelligence level, those who learn more than one language at an older age tend to possess considerably superior cognitive abilities. The reading skills and the general intelligence level are most greatly affected. Such effects are not only present in those individuals who learn a second language in their earlier stage of life, but also those who acquire bilingualism in their later years. It is important to test bilingualism of a person both in early and later stages of life since it is easier to note the transformation in terms of intelligence, cognitive ability, and fluency (Wolfgang, 2001). This research was conducted using two sources. The first source is an article called â€Å"Block play performance among preschoolers as a predictor of later school achievement in mathematics† by Charles Wolfgang et al. The second source is a book called â€Å"Affect in Language Learning† written by Jane Arnold. The two sources are best suited for this essay since they use practical examples in their analysis of the issue.

Storm on the Island Essay Example for Free

Storm on the Island Essay The poets, who wrote the four poems in question, all put forward their personal views upon the aspect(s) of nature which their pieces are themed around. In Seamus Heaneys poem, Storm on the Island, the theme is implied simply in the title. Heaneys poem explores the effects a storm has upon island dwellers where there is no natural shelter. He relates how weak and defenceless we humans are compared to these natural happenings. The way in which we are forced to shelter and protect ourselves from this nothing which has the power and might to change everything in our lives. The unmistakable sense of peoples fear of natures fury is shown throughout the poem. Human and Nature seem to be at war with each other- nature versus man- with Nature the dominant adversary but humans still grimly hanging on. The two sides almost appear to be at a stalemate. For try as it might, the storm has not beaten man- and man can only find means to protect himself- being too weak to retaliate. Heaney presents the storm as an unwanted and vicious foe but does recognize Natures absolute and unrivalled power. Nature is shown to be brutal, strong and overpowering- without mercy to the island dwellers. The other post 1914 poem- The Field Mouse by Gillian Clarke, presents a view which totally opposes Heaneys idea of Nature dominating over man and man being the victim. In fact it completely reverses the idea and has instead man being the one at fault, and shows Natures innocent beings (e. g. the field mouse) as the ones who suffer because of our stupidity and greed. It portrays how the innocence of the vulnerable is shattered by stronger forces through the story of a field mouse fatally injured by a harvester. She presents humans as the tyranny- the plague of nature- destroyers of lives, beauty and innocence through our greed, arrogance and selfish ignorance to the people and things around us- nature as the wronged- the helpless- the meek. Clarkes poem compared to the less descriptive- though just as effective Storm on the Island are very similar in theme, as both concentrate on the seeming battle between man and nature- though the poets are in different minds on who is the most destructive. Heaney concentrates on the natural occurrences that disrupt and destruct peoples lives- but are unavoidable- whereas Clarke focuses on the destruction and consequences Humans force upon nature and the innocent. The actions which are not unavoidable and could easily be averted. Each of the four poems are set out in different styles and structure to add to the overall effect of the poems. Storm on the Island is mostly blank verse. Twenty lines without rhyme, but which is structured in strict iambic pentameter of 10 beats per line. This produces an almost methodical and solemn rhythm to the poem which adds to the seriousness of the situation the Island dwellers find themselves in, for if they did not devise methods of protecting themselves from Natures fury, it could be fatal to them. The field mouse however differs. Gillian Clarke sectioned the poem into three stanzas beginning, middle and end. The first stanza introduces the separate scenes of haymaking and war and compares the two. Though haymaking initially is thought of to be a peaceful and naturalistic event, Clarke manages to turn usually innocent images into deadly, warlike scenes.E. g. summer, the long grass is a snare drum. When the idea of summer is presented, we generally perceive a warm, happy peaceful time- as with long grass, we think naturalistic scenes. Long grass is home to plenty of creatures- snakes, rabbits, pheasants, mice etc. As it is home to many creatures and it is therefore considered a safe haven for them. However, Clarke dispels this idea and instead of having it safe, has it a snare drum. Snare- entrapping, harsh- warlike. Drum conjures up the idea of marching to war- the drums in the background providing the solemn funeral like March. The 2nd stanza introduces the mouse injured by their hay making- caught in the tractors blade. An innocent creature killed because of humans. Due to the underlying images and hints of war in the previous stanza, our minds are tuned to this idea of war destroying the innocent, so when given a mouse killed by humans, we think of the innocent civilians who are caught in the crossfire of the war in Europe who have nothing to do with the conflict but ironically due to being neutral are hurt. The third stanza portrays the consequences of our actions upon nature- Before the days gone, the field lies bleeding, The dusk garden inhabited by the saved, voles, frogs, a nest of mice. It disconcertingly again tunes our minds to human war- the refugees fleeing their homes to escape death or injury. The destruction and woe that war brings- the field lies bleeding- And again our poisonous actions on nature. The poem is highly metaphorical- using combinations of varied linguistic devices to achieve its end ambition of procuring a sense of guilt and remorse in the reader. Metaphors and personification (e. g. the field lies bleeding) are used with great skill- blending two similar stories into one. By using a simple field mouse injured by a harvester in summer to represent innocent civilians casualties caused by caught in the cross fire of a war they play no part in, she evokes feelings of pity and shame inside the reader which then also transfers on to the civilians. She also produces scenes of natural innocence and transforms them into images desecrated by human hands (e. g. a child running through killed flowers and the death of the mouse) to embed her point of our contamination and cruelty upon nature and its creations. Her choice of language is also highly emotive and the feelings of shame and guilt rest largely upon her language. Perhaps this is merely a coincidence, but I received the impression, that the two pre 1914 poems were much more idyllic nature wise and were more centred upon the beauty and creations, whereas the other two struck me to be more about human interference with nature and the affect nature has on human lives. This is almost definitely due to the huge world wars of 1914 onwards which took place and the after shocks which followed. Though this is only a guess, it would explain the rather sudden change on the outlook of our lives and nature. Millions of people had died suffered and had had their homes destroyed- creating misery, devastation and thousands of refugees. Storm on the Island even has some likeness to the Blitz. Having to build improved safer shelters to protect themselves from the bombardment and rage of the storm reminds us rather of people having to build air raid shelters and take refuge in the underground to protect themselves from the deadly bombings in world war two.

Teaching Upper Intermediate Students To Take Notes English Language Essay

Teaching Upper Intermediate Students To Take Notes English Language Essay 1.1. Introduction The purpose of this assignment is to report on an EAP course design simulation. I have decided to focus on EAP for two reasons. Firstly, I am currently teaching at a university in Turkey where I have the task of preparing students for life in an English-medium learning environment. This assignment provides me with an opportunity to examine this learning context and identify factors that influence learning. Secondly, I conducted a similar project whilst completing an MA in Applied Linguistics. During this project, I designed a pre-sessional EAP course for a group of multi-lingual students entering a university in England. I now work predominantly with mono-lingual groups in a non-English speaking country and am interested in investigating how these factors influence course design. 1.2. Theories and Principles EAP rose to prominence in the 1970s (Jordan 1997) and its importance has since increased with the emergence of English as the lingua franca of the global academic community (Hyland Hamp-Lyons 2002). EAP has been defined as the teaching of English with the goal of enabling learners to use that language to study or conduct research (Flowerdew Peacock 2001) and involves helping students to develop linguistic, academic and cultural competence (Gillett Wray 2006). EAP courses may be taught in English speaking contexts, or in countries in which English is used as a foreign or second language (Jordan 1997). EAP is categorised as a form of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and a distinction has been made between English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) and English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) (Blue 1988). EGAP courses, like the one employed in my own context, teach a common core of language and academic skills that all university students require. In contrast, ESAP courses focus on the language and skills needed in one particular academic discipline. However, despite this divide, analyses of EAP courses have revealed that they generally share the following defining features (Robinson 1991: 2): They are goal directed. They are based on the needs of the students. The duration of the course is clearly specified. The students tend to be adults over the age of 18. A high level of English proficiency is not necessarily required. The need to develop academic as well as linguistic competence has received considerable attention in EAP literature (Ballard 1996; Sowden 2003). Ballard (1996) argues that foreign students often require help adjusting to the distinctive academic culture of western universities. For instance, she identifies students struggle to adapt to the critical approach to learning expected of them in western universities. This argument applies to my own teaching context because many of the lecturers are either from or have been educated in western countries and, consequently, have particular expectations about how students should behave. The need to incorporate both linguistic and academic skills into EAP courses has lead many writers to consider the type of syllabi to employ during these courses. Task-based or process syllabi are centred on the cognitive acts students perform at universities. These syllabi emphasise the use of authentic activities and English is viewed merely as the medium through which these activities are performed (Ballard 1996). Similarly, skills-based syllabi, as employed in my own institution, advocate the development of skills that students need to succeed at university. In contrast, content-based syllabi emphasise the material students study at university. These syllabi promote the analysis of language within relevant discourse (Spanos 1987). Likewise, text-based or genre-based syllabi facilitate the examination of language within authentic contexts (Feez 2002). Importantly, Flowerdew (2005) highlights that, depending on student needs, elements of different syllabi can be combined to create an integrated course. 1.3. My Own Experiences My current teaching position is my first classroom exposure to EAP and EAP students. Research conducted into this group of students suggests that they have a number of defining characteristics. For example, Todd (2003) identifies that these students are usually more mature and motivated. Waters and Waters (1992) suggest that successful university students are able to think critically and logically, are self-aware and self-confident, and are willing and able to take responsibility for their own learning. Unfortunately, in my own context, the students have generally just finished high school and have not yet fully developed these characteristics. For instance, many students expect teachers to tell them what to do and are unsure about how to manage their own personal study time. Therefore, teachers must help students develop personal traits as well as linguistic and academic skills. My previous experience of designing an EAP course highlighted the enormity of the task. Whilst analysing the needs of the students, I listed the skills and sub-skills successful university students employ. On completion, I had created an unmanageable list of skills and a pre-sessional course could not explicitly address all of them. Therefore, the course I eventually designed employed a task-based syllabus that allowed students to experience and reflect on the learning activities they would participate in at university. They then built their weaknesses into long-term development plans. 1.4. Implications of the Literature and My Experience Based on the literature and reflection on previous experiences, I believe the following implications are relevant to the design of the EAP course and the needs analysis process. The needs analysis must identify the academic departments the students will be entering. If the students are studying similar subjects, an ESAP approach may be adopted. However, if they are studying different subjects, an EGAP has to be used. The needs analysis must examine the students needs in relation to their linguistic, academic and cultural competency. The needs analysis must be used to identify the students main areas of weakness. It will not be possible to teach all of the various skills and sub-skills that the students need to succeed at university. Instead, the course must prioritise the primary weaknesses. A decision will have to be made regarding the most appropriate syllabus type to meet the needs of the students. 2. Needs Analysis 2.1. Group Profile To promote a learning-centred approach, a questionnaire (see Appendix 1) was used to collect data about learner needs (Hutchinson and Waters 1987). A questionnaire was the most practical method to collect this data. The results (Appendix A) are summarized below: Learner Characteristics 21 students (13 males and 8 females). The average age is 20 (ranging from 18 26). 18 Turkish and 3 Iraqi students. The students are entering various departments at an English-medium university. Sport, films and music are common interests. Learner Preferences Both deductive and inductive approaches. Working on their own, in pairs and in groups. Having input into what and how they learn. Both teacher and self-assessment. Self-Assessment The students perceive reading and speaking as their stronger skills. Listening and writing are skills they need to improve. The students also completed a learning styles questionnaire (Appendix 2). They favour a combination of visual, auditory and kinesthetic activities (Appendix B). 2.2. Identifying Needs Needs analysis (NA) is the process teachers use to determine and prioritize the needs for which a particular group of learners require a language (Richards 2001). These needs may originate from the students or from other stakeholders such as the institution. To assess the needs of this class, I performed a target situation analysis (TSA) to identify the skills students require when they enter the university (Munby 1978). I examined the syllabus used within my institution. This was the most practical method because this syllabus was created following a language audit and, thus, provided a comprehensive breakdown of target needs. The TSA highlighted my institution employs a skills-based approach. As discussed in section 1, successful university students must employ a vast range of sub-skills. Consequently, I performed a present situation analysis (PSA) (Richterich Chancerel 1980) to enable me to identify and prioritize gaps between the students current skill-set and those they require. I used diagnostic tests to collect information about reading, listening and writing because they are the most practical method to obtain accurate quantitative data about students knowledge (Hughes 2003). I used classroom observations to test speaking because this was the most practical way to collect information about a large number of students. Following the findings of the TSA, I employed a skills-based approach and assessed the students listening, reading, writing and speaking skills. 2.3. Diagnostic Testing Diagnostic tests are conducted at the beginning of a period of study to collect data about students current state of language development (Hughes 2003). To ensure the students perceived these tests as being useful; thus satisfying the condition of face validity (Gronlund 1998), I replicated activities the students perform in the institutions examinations. This also satisfied the condition of content validity. Skill Procedure Listening Students took notes while listening to a lecture and then answered comprehension questions using their notes (Appendix 3). Reading Students answered comprehension questions about an academic text requiring them to scan, skim and infer meaning (Appendix 4). Writing The students wrote an academic paragraph (Appendix 5) that was marked for grammar, vocabulary, content and organisation. To increase scorer reliability, a colleague checked the grades (Hughes 2003). Speaking The students were observed in class and marked on grammar, vocabulary, fluency and pronunciation. Once again, a colleague checked the grades. Grammar and Vocabulary These items were assessed indirectly through writing and speaking. 2.4. Results 2.4.1. Present Situation Analysis The diagnostic tests revealed that, on average, the students achieved passing marks (above 60%) in reading and speaking, but failed in listening and writing (Appendix C.1). This matches the students self-assessment. The writing scores highlighted the greatest difficulties concern grammar, vocabulary and organisation (Appendix C.2). The students struggled to use a range of lexis and had problems with grammatical and lexical accuracy (e.g. Appendix 6). However, during feedback, the students self-corrected the majority of their grammar mistakes. This suggests they were performance rather than linguistic errors. The students said they have problems studying vocabulary and usually just translate from L2 to L1. The students also had difficulty using cohesive devices and organising their writing to meet academic conventions and answer questions directly. The note-taking sheets (e.g. Appendix 7) revealed the students struggled to isolate important information and recorded redundant information. The students failed to employ strategies to help them record information quickly. Interestingly, when the students completed the listening test as a while-listening task, they had little difficulty answering the questions. This suggests the students problems concern note-taking rather than listening. The students explained they have had little experience of this task. This supports the notion that these students must develop academic competency. 2.4.2. Target Situation Analysis The syllabus of the institution revealed successful students must be able to use a variety of skills and strategies when taking notes from lectures and writing (Appendix D). To investigate these skills further, the students completed a self-assessment questionnaire (Appendix 8). This questionnaire performed the dual function of collecting data about the students abilities, and increasing their awareness of the skills and strategies needed to succeed at university (Allright 1982). The results showed they are not particularly confident about writing and note-taking sub-skills (Appendix E). 2.5. Priorities for the Planned Course The course will teach EGAP because the students belong to different faculties. The results of the diagnostic tests revealed taking notes from lectures and writing to be common weaknesses. This confirms the students self-assessment of their needs. The course will focus on these skills and provide the students with opportunities to develop and practice strategies they can employ when taking notes. The course will also raise awareness of the organisation of academic writing and promote effective vocabulary use and error correction. Finally, as mentioned in section 1, because the majority of students have just finished high school, the course will aim to increase awareness of university study. 3. Course Proposal 3.1. Course Proposal In accordance with the NA, this EGAP course will focus on taking notes from lectures and, academic writing. It will be taught over 1 week and consists of 20 hours of classroom time with 4.5 hours of additional writing tutorials (3 extra tutorial hours will be available if extra teaching is needed). It will supplement the 8-week course the students are currently taking. The course will enable the students to reflect on, intensively practise, and consolidate the skills and strategies they have already started developing. This will allow the students to address weaknesses and develop confidence in preparation for next course. As such, the supplementary course will be taught at the end of the students current course. 3.2. Goals and Objectives Curriculum designers state the goals and objectives of courses to imbue their creations with purpose and direction (Graves 2000). Goals can be defined as statements concerning the general purposes of a course while objectives are specific statements describing how goals are to be realised (Richards 2001). The goals of this course are to develop the students abilities to write academic essays and paragraphs and, take notes from lectures. The course also aims to increase the students confidence of taking notes and raise their awareness of how to succeed in academic life. To achieve these goals, I have formulated 19 objectives: 4 listening objectives (LO1-LO4), 4 note-taking objectives (NO1-NO4), 8 writing objectives (WO1-WO8), 1 vocabulary objective (VO1), 1 grammar objective (GO1) and 1 affective objective (AO1). For full details of the goals and objectives see Appendix 9. 3.3. Approach As identified in sections 1 and 2, the students need to develop an awareness of what life is like in university departments (Sowden 2003). Consequently, the course will employ an integrated skills approach that simulates the canonical sequence of university study (Appendix F). The lectures the students will listen to and take notes on will provide lexical input about the topics they will write about. The students will supplement this input through further reading and vocabulary study outside class (e.g. Appendix F, Day 1). This self-study responds to the students learning preferences and encourages them to take responsibility for their learning, a characteristic crucial for academic success (Waters and Waters 1992). Based on the analysis of learner needs, a variety of different approaches will be employed in the classroom. First, the listening and note-taking component will include awareness raising and reflection activities. The students have little experience of this task and these activities remedy this. Secondly, both inductive and deductive learning will be employed because the students enjoy both. Thirdly, the course will incorporate individual, pair and group work. For example, the students will brainstorm ideas for writing tasks in pairs before sharing with the group. The students will perform the writing individually. Finally, the course will employ both P-P-P and T-T-T lesson shapes depending on whether the students are encountering concepts for the first time or revisiting them. 3.4. Course Content The listening and note-taking component of the course builds from part to whole (Richards 2001). The diagnostic tests revealed the students have difficulty identifying important information and using note-taking strategies. This course allows the students to increase their awareness of and practise listening and note-taking strategies in isolation before having opportunities to use them, first, in tandem and, then, holistically (e.g. Appendix F, Day 1). Moreover, the students will practise these strategies whilst reading before applying them when listening. This componential approach recycles objectives and, allows students to automatise strategies separately so, when using them holistically, they find it less cognitively challenging (Field 2008). The writing component of the course builds from simple to complex (Richards 2001). The diagnostic tests revealed the students have difficulty answering questions directly and developing ideas logically. Consequently, the students will practise this skill in body paragraphs before progressing to full essays. The writing component will also develop from whole to part (Richards 2001) with students examining the organisation of full texts before analysing and practising writing the individual components (e.g. Appendix F, Day 2). The students identified they enjoy inductive learning and this methodology facilitates this. The students will complete the writing outside class. This removes the pressure of time limits and emphasises the writing process rather than product (Walker and PÃ ©rez RÃ ­u 2008). The grammar and vocabulary teaching will be reactive as the diagnostic tests highlighted the students difficulties mainly concern performance rather than linguistic errors. The students writing will be marked with grammar and vocabulary mistakes highlighted using an error code. The students will then re-write and self-correct their texts in the tutorials. The students enjoy both teacher and self-correction, and both inductive and deductive learning. This methodology responds to these needs. The tutorials will contain fewer students so the students will have greater access to a teacher if they need to ask questions. 3.5. Materials The materials to be used in this course have been designed for the purposes of English teaching (Appendix F). The language is graded and, in the lectures, the rate of speech is slower. This will allow the students to focus on developing the targeted skills and strategies instead of worrying about language. It also responds to the students affective needs. They are extremely anxious about taking notes and, if exposed to authentic lectures, might be overwhelmed (Guariento and Morely 2001). The use of inauthentic material is also offset by the authenticity of the tasks. The students will have to take notes and write essays in their departments so they are likely to be motivated (Long and Crookes 1992). Unfortunately, the use of graded material limits the topics to those in the coursebooks. I have chosen lectures on the topics of health, society and relationships. These topics are accessible to all of the students and the TSA revealed they feature in the coursebooks and exams of the inst itution. 3.6. Institutional Constraints A number of institutional constraints have influenced the design of this course. Firstly, the availability of teachers affected the tutorials. Ideally, the tutorials would contain a maximum of five students. However, this would require in excess of 5 teachers and this was not possible. Consequently, two teachers will conduct the tutorials and the class will be halved. Secondly, the institutions examinations influenced the methodology used on the course. The students will sit a skills-based examination shortly after participating in this supplementary course. Consequently, I decided to use comprehension questions to measure note-taking ability. The students perform similar tasks in their exam so they will probably be more motivated because they can apply the strategies they practise during this course. 4. Assessment 4.1. Assessment Principles Assessment is an umbrella term referring to the collection of data about the abilities or achievements of learners taking a particular course (Brindley 2001). It may occur formatively (during the course) or summatively (at the end of the course). Assessment can be performed using both quantitative and qualitative methodology (Jordan 1997). Qualitative methodology may include classroom observation or interviews while the main quantitative method is testing. Tests may be employed at various stages during a course. Proficiency and diagnostic tests are administered at the beginning of a course to provide information about learners existing abilities (Hughes 2003). In contrast, achievement tests are used formatively or summatively to assess students progress and identify what they have learnt from a particular course (Brindley 2001). In order to be effective, tests must be both valid and reliable (Hughes 2003). Validity concerns the ability of tests to measure what they are supposed to while reliability is the extent to which tests can be repeated achieving consistent results (Brindley 2001). 4.2. Monitoring Learner Progress Progress in the listening and note-taking component will be assessed through comprehension questions and self-assessment (Appendix 10, Days 1, 3 and 5). This assessment is integrated into the course and will be conducted in the final block of note-taking days. The comprehension questions include multiple choice and short open-ended questions. The self-assessment requires the students to reflect on their use of strategies practised and rate themselves (e.g. Appendix 11). The students will also collect their note-taking sheets, comprehension questions and self-assessment sheets in a Learning Portfolio (LP). These will function as records of their learning processes and, be used for summative assessment and reflection purposes (Nunes 2004). Progress in the writing component will be assessed through the completion of three writing tasks: one paragraph and two essays (Appendix 10, Days 2, 4 and 5). The students use of grammar and vocabulary will be assessed indirectly through these tasks. The students will write a first and second draft for each task and both drafts will be marked and graded. The first drafts are to be completed outside class. The second drafts will be started in writing tutorials and finished outside of class. Both drafts of each task will be included in their LPs. 4.3. Assessing Learner Outcomes The students LPs will form the basis of the summative assessment (Appendix 10, Day 6). The students will reflect on their work and self-assess their progress in each of the objectives (Appendix 12). In one to one tutorials, the students will discuss this self-assessment and form long-term development goals to respond to their weaknesses. This assessment will be low stakes because the students will soon be taking a high stakes examination in the institution and do not need further pressure. The decision to use both teacher and self-assessment in the formative and summative assessment responds to the students learning preferences. Self-assessment also encourages students to be more active and take responsibility for their learning (Harris 1997). The use of LPs combines formative and summative assessment, and this helps students to better understand their strengths and weaknesses (Lam Lee 2009). It also allows the students to monitor their development in note-taking; thus, increasing their confidence. 4.4. How Assessment Principles Influenced Assessment Methodology The assessment methods aim to conform to the principle of validity. Adopting a skills-based approach achieves construct validity. The TSA revealed my institution advocates this theory and the assessment methods of this course reflect this. The students will be assessed on their ability to employ skills and strategies when taking notes from lectures and, writing paragraphs and essays. The course also follows theoretical developments in written assessment. The use of LPs rather than timed exams emphasises the writing process rather than the product (Walker and PÃ ©rez RÃ ­u 2008). The use of skills-based assessment also satisfies the conditions of both content and face validity. The assessment tasks mirror those performed on this course and, during regular courses and examinations. Consequently, the students are likely to view the course and assessment techniques as appropriate (Gronlund 1998). The assessment methods also aim to conform to principle of reliability. The listening and note-taking component of the course will be assessed using multiple choice and short open-ended questions and, these will be marked using a standardised answer key. This will increase scorer reliability. The written tasks will be marked using the writing criteria of the institution. These criteria are regularly standardised. Therefore, although subjective, scorer reliability will be enhanced. 4.5. Constraints and Opportunities Whilst planning how to assess this course, I encountered a number of constraints. Firstly, I decided to use comprehension questions to assess listening and note-taking because this is how my institution assesses these skills. The students are familiar with this form of assessment so, had I chosen a different method, I may have experienced negative backwash with students failing to value my choice of methodology (Hughes 2003). Moreover, by using comprehension questions, I can exploit backwash from the examinations positively to motivate the students. Secondly, I faced practicality problems with the written assessment. The students will complete their writing tasks at home and have tutorials about them the next day. Therefore, to allow for marking, tutorials would have start at 10am with regular classes being taught in the afternoon. The students will submit their work via e-mail by 8am. This provides the teachers sufficient time to mark and, also imposes deadlines on the students. Suc h deadlines are part of university study and the students must take responsibility for meeting them. 4.6. Course Evaluation Evaluation is the process of collecting information about a course, both formatively and summatively, with the purpose of determining how effective it is and to guide decisions about teaching and learning (Murphy 2000). The evaluation methods to be used on this course are summarised in Appendix 13. In this course, LPs play a crucial role in evaluation. The data in these portfolios will help me make both formative and summative judgments about whether objectives are being met. The formative judgments will be particularly useful because they will help me to decide whether to use any of the free tutorials to provide additional teaching. In addition, the students will complete a questionnaire to evaluate the course summatively (Appendix 12). This questionnaire will allow the students to rate the usefulness of the activities, materials, teaching and assessment methods, and make open-ended comments about the course. 5. Conclusion 5.1. Conclusion Studying at university is an extremely complex process requiring students to participate in a variety of learning activities and, use a vast array of skills and sub-skills (Munby 1978). The task of EAP practitioners, who help students acquire these skills, is unenviable because, in addition to teaching linguistic competence, they also have to help students develop academic and cultural competence and, personal characteristics. When designing my course, I responded to this challenge, by conducting an analysis of the students needs. This analysis enabled me to identify and prioritise the most pressing weaknesses of the students. Therefore, I was able to maximize the benefit that the students would receive from what is a relatively short course. I believe that, having taken the course, the students will, not only be better equipped to take notes from lectures and, write paragraphs and essays, they will also feel more confident about doing so. The task of designing an EAP course for my students was made even more challenging because most of them have just finished high school and are unfamiliar with university study. Therefore, I believe that my decision to design the course to simulate university study will be particularly valuable to them in the long-term. Although the students will still have a lot more to learn about academic study, I believe that, when they enter their departments, they will be more aware of what is expected of them both inside and outside of class. Moreover, I feel that, through being exposed to the use of LPs as a method of learning and assessment, the students will have taken a huge step towards to becoming more self-aware and responsible for their own learning. These characteristics will play a fundamental role in their lives as successful university students.

British Legal Framework For Construction Health and Safety

British Legal Framework For Construction Health and Safety In 1974 in Great Britain, the parliament adopted the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (HSWA) which became the major piece of legislation at work for health and safety matters in the country. This Act was adopted for all industries including construction. Its aims were to provide the main principles and duties to employers, employees and all the participant of the work activity in general (St John Holt, 2005). Then, the European Union (EU) imposed new directives to its members on health and safety issues. The legal framework in Great Britain changed and new acts and directive had been adopted by the parliament setting up a hierarchy of component in the legal system (Howarth Watson, 2009): European Union regulations and directives: all the members of EU are subject to European legislation UK statutory law: acts of parliament HSWA 1974 is the principal act in the UK Statutory instrument: regulations to develop and detail specific duties and requirement concerning health and safety law in the UK Approved Codes of Practice: practical guidance for compliance with health and safety regulations Since 1974, the HSWA had been supported and supplemented by several statutory instruments and regulations (Joyston-Bechal Grice, 2004). Following the framework directives of the EU aiming to improve health and safety for workers at work, the Management of the Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 and then 1999 (MHSW) came to provide additional elements to the HSWA. Other daughter regulations had been adopted to implement this act on specific construction related areas (Fewings, 2005). Some examples of these new regulations (St John Holt, 2005; Fewings, 2005): MHSW Management of the Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992/1999 CHSW Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996/2000 PUWER Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 LOLER Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 CSHHR Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1999 MHOR Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 CDM Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994/2007 The HSWA first objectives were to impose duties on the stakeholders involved in the work activity related to the safeguarding of health and safety standards. The key duties were places on employers toward employees, on employers towards people other than employees, on people in control of premises, on designer, manufacturers, suppliers and plant installer for the safety of their products, on every employees and more generally on everybody concerned by work activity (Howarth Watson, 2009). The responsibility for enforcing these act and regulations is taken by the Health and Safety Commission (HSC) which is appointed by the government to develop policies on its behalf. Its executive arm, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is in charge of the enforcement. It controls and advise the companies in the applications of the regulations (St John Holt, 2005). The HSC and HSE are also responsible of recording and monitoring construction industry health and safety statistics in Great Britain. Injuries, diseases and dangerous occurrences are then considered with numbers and corrective actions can be made (Howarth Watson, 2009). Construction design and management (CDM) On 6 April 2007 came into force in Great Britain the new Construction Design and Management Regulations 2007 written by the Health and Safety Commission (HSC) and approved by the Secretary of State and the Parliament. These regulations update, combine and replace the former Construction Design and Management Regulations 1994 (CDM94) and the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996 (CHSW) which both needed to be reviewed and updated accordingly with the recent evolutions of the considerations towards health and safety issues in construction and after consultations of the main stakeholders of the construction industry (HSC, 2007). The CDM2007 Regulations aim to reduce construction accidents and ill health in Great Britain by encouraging the various stakeholders of the construction industry to improve in planning and managing their projects taking into consideration matters of safety and health early on in the project definition. By starting focusing on these essential points at the beginning of a project, risks can be identified and managers are able to make good decisions ahead of difficulties (Howarth Watson, 2009). In this new version of the regulations, the HSC focuses on communication and co-ordination between all the parties involved in the construction project and set up several duties for each of the different stakeholders. It also highlights that the amount of paperwork and all the bureaucracy caused by the previous version of the regulations should be reduced and the focus put on the planning and management. (HSE Website) The CDM set up obligations for clients and designers. The main obligation imposed to the client is to appoint the main stakeholders for the planning and the realisation of construction work (St John Holt, 2005). By construction work, the CDM broadly refers to the carrying out of building, civil engineering or engineering construction word (HSC, 2007). The regulations also impose duties to the central figures then appointed which are related to health, safety and occupational safety on construction project and which will be summarised later in this paper. Among the dutyholders which participate to the carrying out of the project are the Client, the Designer, the CDM-Coordinator, the Principal Contractor and the Contractors (St John Holt, 2005). The Client The Client is defined as any person for whom construction work is being carried out, whether done by external labour or in-house (Joyston-Bechal Grice, 2004). It can be an individual as well as a company. By this definition of the investigator of the work, the Client is the one who provides adequate funds to design and realise the work in respect of safety and health regulations imposed by the CDM and thus has a certain influence on what happens on site (St John Holt, 2005). The CDM Regulations 2007 submit the Client to several duties (Howarth Watson, 2009) (Joyston-Bechal Grice, 2004) (HSE, 2006): Appoint a CDM-Coordinator and a Principal Contractor Make sure that these two stakeholders and all the other the client could directly appoint are competent and have the adequate resources to mange health and safety problem associated with the project Ensure that the construction does not start until suitable welfare facilities have been provided as well as an agreeable health and safety plan Provide the CDM-Coordinator and the Designers with all the relevant information about health and safety matters related to the project Retain and make the health and safety file available to anyone who asks for it The CDM-Coordinator should be appointed as soon as possible so the Client can receive advice from him in order to appoint the other stakeholders (St John Holt, 2005). One of the important duty of the Client is to make sure that all the main figures he (it?) has to appoint are competent and have the adequate resources to deal with health and safety issues. That means the Client has to ensure that these stakeholders understand well the project, are familiar with construction techniques, are well aware of health and safety matters their risks and consequences but also that they allocate enough money and persons to do the job (Joyston-Bechal Grice, 2004). Maybe what they are not required ? Fraser The CDM-Coordinator The CDM-Coordinator is a person or a company appointed as early as possible by the Client in the preparation of the project. He is a key element for the prevention of risks related to health and safety as he is the main advisor of the Client and he is the guarantor of coordination and co-operation between the main figures involved in the construction process (HSC, 2007). The duties of the CDM-Coordinator imposed by the Regulations 2007 are (HSC, 2007) (Semple Fraser, 2007) (Howarth Watson, 2009): Advise the Client and other stakeholders on appointments: competence and resource availability Notify HSE about the project Coordinate planning and design work on health and safety matters Cooperate with the Principal Contractor and facilitate good communication between the stakeholders involved in the project Collect pre-construction information and prepare a pre-tender health and safety plan Prepare and update the health and safety file Supervise designers and ensure the design is prepared adequately The CDM-Coordinator is appointed only in the case of notifiable projects. That covers all the construction works which are scheduled to last more than 30 days or involve more than 500 person-days of work. A person-day is defined as one individual carrying out construction work during one normal working day (St John Holt, 2005). An important part of the CDM-Coordinators duties is to work close to designers in order to ensure they get the right information are the good moment and to supervise their work in order to figure out if they consider hazard, risks and control (WS Atkins Consultants, rev A. Gilbertson, 2004). The Designer Designers have a key role in managing health and safety on site. They are the persons or companies who can prevent risks at the source (Semple Fraser, 2007). The designer is the one who analyse site information and prepare drawings and specifications for the project. He can be an architect, a land surveyor or an engineer (HSE, 2006). For complex projects, several designers can be appointed to split the design and ensure to identify and examine all the health and safety factors that need to be addressed (WS Atkins Consultants, rev A. Gilbertson, 2004). The main duties of a designers are Eliminate hazards and reduce health and safety risks Provide all the stakeholders with information about the remaining risks that could be eliminated Ensure the client is aware of duties and that he (it?) appointed a CDM-Coordinator Update the health and safety file with all the new information concerning health and safety matters Cooperate with the CDM-Coordinator and the other designers and supply the relevant information Designers have the duty of indentifying and eliminating hazards and reduce the risks of those which cannot be eliminated (HSC, 2007) by using risk assessment methods to detect foreseeable risk and ensure the safety of workers by tackling the problem at the source. For this purpose they have to reduce de likelihood of harmful occurrences and the potential severity of harm resultant from it, limit the number of people exposed the these occurrences on site as well as and the duration and frequency of exposition (Howarth Watson, 2009). The Principal Contractor The Principal Contractor is an individual or a company appointed early in the construction process by the Client and is responsible for planning, managing and controlling health and safety on site during the construction phase of the project (HSE, 2006). The Principal Contractor is usually the main Contractor of the project. He (it?) has to ensure a good cooperation and coordination of work between the Contractors involved in the construction because of the fact they may work on the same site at the same time and then interaction between then can create unexpected hazards (HSC, 2007). The duties imposed to the Principal Contractor are (Howarth Watson, 2009) (Joyston-Bechal Grice, 2004) (HSE, 2006): Plan, manage and control construction phases and provide a good communication with Contractors Create and implement the health and safety plan on the base of the pre-construction plan Set up site rules Provide Contractors with all the information available concerning health and safety matters to ensure safety of their workers Ensure the availability of suitable welfare facilities at the beginning of the work and maintain it during the duration of the construction phase Check the resource availability and the competence of its (his?) appointed stakeholders Provide the workers with an induction when they arrive on site and further training and information for specific work Make the site a safe place and restrict access to people involved in the construction Consult with the workers and liaise with the CDM-Coordinator The Principal Contractor has a significant health implication when designs change or decisions are modified. The consultation process with the workers and the CDM-Coordinator permits to make everyone aware of the new updates in the construction phase plan and of the changing in managing health and safety (Semple Fraser, 2007). The Contractor The Contractor is any person or company who is in charge of the carrying out or the management of the construction work. The Contractor can also organise the work of other stakeholders who carry out the work on his (it ?) behalf (Joyston-Bechal Grice, 2004). The duties of the Contractor are (Howarth Watson, 2009) (HSC, 2007): Plan, manage and control own work and that of workers Check competence of workers and sub-contractors Specific training for workers Provide health and safety information to workers Make sure workers beneficiate of suitable welfare facilities Check the project is notified before starting the work Cooperate with other Contractors and with the Principal Contractor Provide any information to update the health and safety file Report any accidents, diseases and dangerous occurrences to the Principal Contractor as well as problems with the health and safety plan. Most of the time on large projects, several contractors work at the same time on the same site. In this case it is essential they cooperate with each other and follow the instructions of the Principal Contractor not to interact and create new hazards on site. The contractors should ask for the health and safety construction phase plan produced by the Principal Contractor to get all the information they need to ensure safety of their employees (HSE, 2006).